Spouse Socio Economic Status and Work Life Balance Among Teachers: A Case of Female Teachers in Selected Public Primary Schools in Gauteng District, South Africa
Keywords:
Work life balance, female teachers, spouse, socio-economic status, stressAbstract
Female teachers often struggle to balance work and family duties when support at home depends on the spouse’s socio-economic status. This study examined how income stability, education level, and occupation of the spouse shaped the work–life balance of female teachers in selected public primary schools in Gauteng District. The study used a qualitative case study design and engaged thirty-three teachers through in-depth interviews. The data were analyzed through thematic analysis using NVIVO software. The findings showed that unstable spouse income increased pressure at home and influenced the teacher’s readiness for school tasks. Spouse education shaped household decisions and created different levels of support for teachers who needed structured routines. Spouse occupation shaped time availability and influenced homework routines, evening structure, and the teacher’s energy. These patterns revealed that each aspect of socio-economic status shaped a clear layer of the teacher’s daily life. The study concluded that stable support at home strengthened balance for teachers and reduced strain across the day. The study recommended action by education departments, social development agencies, and school leaders to offer targeted support for teachers who face limited help at home. These interventions can ease daily pressure and improve the well-being of female teachers.
References
Anyasor, M. O. (2018). Socio-economic role on spouse's dominance of purchase decision of household goods in Nigeria. International Journal of Trend in Research and Development, 5(1), 175-193. https://ssrn.com/abstract=3818692
Varma, R. (2025). Achieving Work-Life Balance: Strategies for Supporting Educator Retention and Promoting Teaching Excellence in Higher Education. https://jjem.jnnce.ac.in/journals/SP-4/JJEMSP0438.pdf
Asif, M. F., Pervaiz, Z., Afridi, J. R., Safdar, R., Abid, G., & Lassi, Z. S. (2022). Socio-economic determinants of child mortality in Pakistan and the moderating role of household’s wealth index. BMC pediatrics, 22(1), 3. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12887-021-03076-2
Behzadpoor, D. (2020). Work-life balance among female dentists in Canada. University of Toronto (Canada). https://search.proquest.com/openview/c68f17e822bba25a6e021efa8be4e118/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750&diss=yv
Bertogg, A., & Strauss, S. (2020). Spousal care-giving arrangements in Europe. The role of gender, socio-economic status and the welfare state. Ageing & Society, 40(4), 735-758. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/ageing-and-society/article/spousal-caregiving-arrangements-in-europe-the-role-of-gender-socioeconomic-status-and-the-welfare-state/69B1956D7D7E3D436A20B1C124555190
Bertogg, A., & Strauss, S. (2020). Spousal care-giving arrangements in Europe. The role of gender, socio-economic status and the welfare state. Ageing & Society, 40(4), 735-758. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/ageing-and-society/article/spousal-caregiving-arrangements-in-europe-the-role-of-gender-socioeconomic-status-and-the-welfare-state/69B1956D7D7E3D436A20B1C124555190
Blau, F. D., & Winkler, A. E. (2017). Women, work, and family (No. w23644). National Bureau of Economic Research. https://www.nber.org/papers/w23644
Clark, S. C. (2000). Work/family border theory: A new theory of work/family balance. Human relations, 53(6), 747-770. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726700536001v
Cobb, S. (1976). Social support as a moderator of life stress. Biopsychosocial Science and Medicine, 38(5), 300-314. https://journals.lww.com/bsam/abstract/1976/09000/social_support_as_a_moderator_of_life_stress.3.aspx
Cuéllar-Molina, D., García-Cabrera, A. M., & Lucia-Casademunt, A. M. (2018). Is the institutional environment a challenge for the well-being of female managers in Europe? The mediating effect of work–life balance and role clarity practices in the workplace. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 15(9), 1813. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15091813
Cunha, V., & Marinho, S. (2018). Negotiating work-life balance, gender equality and parenting: drivers and ambivalences in dual-earner/dual-carer couples. Quaderns de l'Institut Català d'Antropologia, (34), 60-86. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Silvia-Filippi-4/publication/350160565_Balancing_Identities_How_Economic_Inequality_and_Class_Affect_Work-life_Balance/links/6058a82c299bf17367606b68/Balancing-Identities-How-Economic-Inequality-and-Class-Affect-Work-life-Balance.pdf
El-Baz, S. (2020). The impact of social and economic factors on women’s group formation in Egypt. In Organizing Women (pp. 147-171). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003136026
Florean, D., & Engelhardt, H. (2020). His and her working hours and well-Being in Germany: A longitudinal crossover-spillover analysis. Journal of Family Research, 32(2), 249-273. https://doi.org/10.20377/jfr-372
Franco, L. S., Picinin, C. T., Pilatti, L. A., & Franco, A. C. (2021). Work-life balance in Higher Education: a systematic review of the impact on the well-being of teachers. Ensaio: Avaliação e Políticas Públicas em Educação, 29(112), 691-717. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0104-403620210002903021
Gordon, J. L., & Presseau, J. (2023). Effects of parenthood and gender on well-being and work productivity among Canadian academic research faculty amidst the COVID-19 pandemic. Canadian psychology/psychologie canadienne, 64(2), 144. https://psycnet.apa.org/fulltext/2022-41983-001.html
Guerrina, R. (2015). Socio-economic challenges to work-life balance at times of crisis. Journal of Social Welfare and Family Law, 37(3), 368-377. https://doi.org/10.1080/09649069.2015.1081223
Gupta, P. (2016). Status, Role Adjustment and Role Conflict of Working Woman in Family: A Study of School Teachers. Scholarly Research Journal For Humanity Science and English Language, 3(1), 3807-3820. https://www.academia.edu/download/47879870/6.poonam_gupta.pdf
Karatasou, S., & Santamouris, M. (2019). Socio-economic status and residential energy consumption: A latent variable approach. Energy and Buildings, 198, 100-105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2019.06.013
Karney, B. R. (2021). Socioeconomic status and intimate relationships. Annual review of psychology, 72(1), 391-414. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-051920-013658
Kelly, M., Soles, R., Garcia, E., & Kundu, I. (2020). Job stress, burnout, work-life balance, well-being, and job satisfaction among pathology residents and fellows. American Journal of Clinical Pathology, 153(4), 449-469. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcp/aqaa013
Khalili, M. (2024). Navigating the tightrope: a literature analysis of female teachers' struggles managing societal expectations in Western European countries (Bachelor's thesis, M. Khalili). https://urn.fi/URN:NBN:fi:oulu-202406264959
Kromydas, T. (2020). Educational attainment and gender differences in work–life balance for couples across Europe: A contextual perspective. Social inclusion, 8(4), 2920. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7116291/
Landolfi, A., Barattucci, M., De Rosa, A., & Lo Presti, A. (2021). The association of job and family resources and demands with life satisfaction through work–family balance: a longitudinal study among Italian schoolteachers during the COVID-19 pandemic. Behavioral Sciences, 11(10), 136. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs11100136
Lekgothoane, K. (2024). The Gender Roles of School Teachers and their Recreational Preferences and Participation Patterns in a Rural Setting in Limpopo Province, South Africa (Doctoral dissertation, University of Western Cape). https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Khutso-Lekgothoane/publication/394541479_The_gender_roles_of_school_teachers_and_their_recreation_preferences_and_participation_patterns_in_a_rural_setting_in_Limpopo_Province_South_Africa/links/68a3fb262c7d3e0029b17221/The-gender-roles-of-school-teachers-and-their-recreation-preferences-and-participation-patterns-in-a-rural-setting-in-Limpopo-Province-South-Africa.pdf
Macchioni, E., & Prandini, R. (2019). Work–life balance measures of working carers and well-being satisfaction within couple relationships: The result of an Italian policy looking through the gender lens. Social Sciences, 8(4), 109. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci8040109
Matthews, R. A., Barnes-Farrell, J. L., & Bulger, C. A. (2010). Advancing measurement of work and family domain boundary characteristics. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 77(3), 447-460. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2010.05.008
Mcameni, B. T. (2022). Working Mothers’ Experiences of Emergency Remote Education in Gauteng, South Africa. University of Johannesburg (South Africa). https://search.proquest.com/openview/d06f8592a35e585e49a68da3bee97dac/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=2026366&diss=y
Mensah, A., & Adjei, N. K. (2020). Work-life balance and self-reported health among working adults in Europe: a gender and welfare state regime comparative analysis. BMC public health, 20(1), 1052. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-020-09139-w
Meraj, M., & Sadaqat, M. (2016). Gender equality and socio-economic development through women’s empowerment in Pakistan. Ritsumeikan Journal of Asia Pacific Studies, 34(16), 125-140. https://www.apu.ac.jp/rcaps/uploads/fckeditor/publications/journal/RJAPS34_13_Meraj.pdf
Moyo, Z., & Naidoo, T. (2024). Female School Leaders Navigating Leadership During the COVID-19 Pandemic in Quintile 2 Ranking Schools in Gauteng, South Africa. Progressio, 45, 23-pages. https://doi.org/10.25159/2663-5895/16372
Muthami, J., Gatumu, H., Sahaya, S. G., & Wambui, J. (2017). The role of women in Socio-Economic Development: A Case Study of Women involved in small-scale business in Nairobi County. https://profiles.uonbi.ac.ke/hngatumu/files/2.9.09_0.pdf
Muthulakshmi, C. (2018). A study on work life balance among the teaching professionals of arts and colleges in Tuticorin district. ICTACT Journal on Management Studies, 4(1), 657-662. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/856b/05951d8b9a4b52a03aaae99eaafe22f78edf.pdf
Ngakane, H. M. (2023). Gender-Based Challenges of Female Teachers in the Teaching of Civil Technology in Selected Secondary Schools in Gauteng Province (Master's thesis, University of South Africa (South Africa)). https://search.proquest.com/openview/b82cacc4185b133409c283af813a9ebc/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=2026366&diss=yv
Nnubia, U., Ibeanu, V., & Okechukwu, F. (2022). Socio-economic and household characteristics associated with work-family conflict among female primary school teachers in Enugu State, Nigeria. African Journal of Teacher Education, 11(1), 143-165. https://doi.org/10.21083/ajote.v11i1.6995
Pradhan, R. K., Jena, L. K., & Kumari, I. G. (2016). Effect of work–life balance on organizational citizenship behaviour: Role of organizational commitment. Global Business Review, 17(3_suppl), 15S-29S. https://doi.org/10.1177/0972150916631071
Rajagopal, N. K., Ba Zanbour, M. K. A., & Al Kaaf, N. M. A. (2024). Exploring work–life balance among female staff members (teaching and non-teaching) in higher educational institutions of Oman: A study. Economies, 12(9), 230. https://doi.org/10.3390/economies12090230
Rawal, D. M. (2023). Work life balance among female school teachers [k-12] delivering online curriculum in Noida [India] during COVID: Empirical study. Management in education, 37(1), 37-45. https://doi.org/10.1177/0892020621994303
Schoufour, J. D., de Jonge, E. A., Kiefte-de Jong, J. C., van Lenthe, F. J., Hofman, A., Nunn, S. P., & Franco, O. H. (2018). Socio-economic indicators and diet quality in an older population. Maturitas, 107, 71-77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.maturitas.2017.10.010
Senekal, M., Seme, Z., de Villiers, A., & Steyn, N. P. (2015). Health status of primary school educators in low socio-economic areas in South Africa. BMC Public Health, 15(1), 186. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-015-1531-x
Shadrack, M. M. (2021). Work Life Balance: the Experiences of Black Female Academics at a University in Gauteng (Master's thesis, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg (South Africa)). https://search.proquest.com/openview/810e42b34930376ca936f11ba345faa6/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=2026366&diss=y
Shams, K., & Kadow, A. (2019). The relationship between subjective well-being and work–life balance among labourers in Pakistan. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 40(4), 681-690. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10834-019-09631-5
Shethi, Y. M. (2018). Socio-Economic Status of Female Teachers in Private Schools of Tikapur Municipality, Kailali (Doctoral dissertation, Faculty of Rural Development). https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.14540/2216
Soni, P., & Bakhru, K. M. (2019). A review on teachers eudaemonic well-being and innovative behaviour: exploring the importance of personality, work-life balance, self-efficacy and demographic variables. International Journal of Learning and Change, 11(2), 169-189. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJLC.2019.101661
Srivastava, P., & Singh, V. (2015). Managing work-life balance: A study of married female employees in management & engineering colleges in a selected area. Adhyayan: A Journal of Management Sciences, 5(01), 73-84. https://smsjournals.com/index.php/Adhyayan/article/view/2061
Tao, S. (2019). Female teachers in Tanzania: an analysis of gender, poverty and constrained capabilities. Gender and Education, 31(7), 903-919. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09540253.2017.1336203
Thoits, P. A. (2011). Mechanisms linking social ties and support to physical and mental health. Journal of health and social behavior, 52(2), 145-161. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022146510395592
Uwizeyimana, D. E., & Mathevula, N. S. (2018). Factors contributing to female educators' underrepresentation in school management positions in Lulekani Circuit, Limpopo Province, South Africa. International Journal of Indian Culture and Business Management, 16(1), 71-98. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJICBM.2018.088597
Vavasseur, B. (2024). A Qualitative Study of Job Satisfaction, Work-Life Balance, and Sense of Belonging, on Well-Being and Retention of Faculty in Louisiana’s Public Higher Education Institutions. University of Louisiana at Lafayette. https://search.proquest.com/openview/a8bd2a906ba3e99bd52c8a70a954c13c/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750&diss=y
Wei, C., & Ye, J. H. (2022, November). The impacts of work-life balance on the emotional exhaustion and well-being of college teachers in China. In Healthcare (Vol. 10, No. 11, p. 2234). MDPI. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare10112234
Yang, L., Martikainen, P., & Silventoinen, K. (2016). Effects of individual, spousal, and offspring socioeconomic status on mortality among elderly people in China. Journal of Epidemiology, 26(11), 602-609. https://doi.org/10.2188/jea.JE20150252
Zivcicová, E., Bulková, K., & Masárová, T. (2017). Comparison of the selected indicators of work life balance in European Union countries. Economics & Sociology, 10(1), 222. https://doi.org/10.14254/2071-789X.2017/10-1/16
